Chile

Why is lithium mining in Andean salt flats also called water mining?

By Víctor Quintanilla, David Cañas and Javier Oviedo* According to official figures, approximately 2.2 billion people worldwide lack access to drinking water.Despite this panorama, threats to this common good from overexploitation and pollution are increasing. One such threat is the accelerated extraction of lithium in Latin American countries, driven by corporate and state actors to meet the energy transition needs of the global North.Lithium extraction involves enormous water consumption and loss and is essentially water mining.On the continent, the advance of the lithium industry particularly threatens the salt flats and other Andean wetlands of the Gran Atacama region—located in the ecological region of the Puna, on the border of Argentina, Bolivia and Chile—where more than 53 percent of the mineral’s resources (potentially exploitable material) are located.Lithium mining exacerbates the natural water deficit in the area, threatening not only the salt flats, but also the many forms of life that live there. Where does the water used in lithium mining come from?First, it’s necessary to point out that salt flats are aquatic ecosystems located at the bottom of endorheic or closed basins. There, rivers do not flow into the sea but into the interior of the territory, so the water forms lakes or lagoons often accompanied by salt flats due to evaporation.In the salt flats, freshwater and saltwater usually coexist in a delicate balance that allows life to survive.The regions with salt flats, such as the Gran Atacama, are arid or semi-arid, with high evaporation and low rainfall. There we find freshwater aquifers at the foot of the mountains and brine aquifers in the center of the salt flats, both connected and in equilibrium.Brine is basically water with a high salt content, although the lithium mining industry considers it a mineral to justify its exploitation and minimize the water footprint of its activities.In addition to being essential for life, the waters of the salt flats are a heritage resource because they are very old—up to tens of thousands of years—and have been the livelihood of the indigenous people who have inhabited the Puna for thousands of years.When the mining industry moves into a salt flat, it threatens the natural balance and directly affects the relationship between water and the social environment, as well as the relationship between water and other forms of life.To extract lithium from a salt flat, the traditional procedure is to drill the salt flat, pour the brine into large ponds, wait for the water to evaporate so that the lithium concentration increases, send the lithium concentrate to an industrial plant and subject it to chemical treatment to separate the lithium from other salts and finally obtain lithium carbonate or hydroxide: a raw material used mainly in the manufacture of batteries.The continuous and large-scale extraction of brine from saline aquifers alters the natural balance of groundwater. As a result, areas that were previously filled with brine are emptied, causing freshwater from nearby aquifers to move in and occupy those spaces, becoming salinized in the process.The final processes to extract lithium carbonate and separate it from the rest of the compound also require water, which is drawn from surface or underground sources that also supply local communities.Therefore, the water used in lithium mining comes from:Underground freshwater and brine aquifers.Surface sources such as rivers and vegas (land where water accumulates). Therefore, the inherent risk of lithium mining is the overexploitation of these water sources. How much water does lithium mining use?The extraction of lithium by the methods described above involves an enormous consumption and loss of water, which is not returned to the environment because it completely used up, because its properties change, or because it is simply lost through evaporation.According to scientific data, the average water overconsumption in lithium mining is as follows:150 m3 of fresh water used to produce one ton of lithium.350 m3 of brine per ton of lithium.Between 100 and 1000 m3 of water evaporated per ton of lithium produced. To illustrate the loss of water resources in lithium mining, the water lost to evaporation is equivalent to the total water consumption of the population of Antofagasta (166,000 people) for two years. This Chilean city is located 200 km from the Salar de Atacama, where more than 90 percent of the country's lithium reserves are located.In addition to water depletion, lithium mining can also contaminate the resource by producing wastewater containing toxic substances. Our vital relationship with waterUnlike the mining industry, which sees water as just another resource to be exploited, the indigenous communities living in the area have an ancestral connection to the resource on which their economic and productive activities depend, as well as their customs, traditions and worldview.These communities must now confront the pressures on water from the advance of lithium mining, driven by outside interests.But they are doing so with courage, developing processes of defense of water and territory.Let us learn from them to defend a common good without which no way of life is possible.Learn more about the impacts of lithium mining on Andean salt flats in this StoryMap (in Spanish)Watch the recording of the webinar “Evidence of hyperconsumption of water in lithium extraction and production” (in Spanish) *Víctor Quintanilla is AIDA's Content Coordinator; David Cañas and Javier Oviedo are scientific advisors. 

Life in Andean wetlands at risk from extractivism

The expansion of industrial extraction of lithium and other minerals for the energy transition of the global north threatens wetlands in Argentina, Bolivia and Chile. These delicate ecosystems are an abundant source of life and fundamental for human subsistence, environmental balance and for mitigating and adapting to the climate crisis.The Andean wetlands - including salt flats, lakes and lagoons - of Argentina, Bolivia and Chile are at serious risk due to the advance of the extraction of lithium and other minerals demanded for the energy transition in the countries of the global north. The Andean Wetlands Alliance warns of this threat to these ecosystems where life abounds and which are key to human subsistence and biodiversity in general and to the fight against the climate crisis.This year, the Convention on Wetlands proposes as the theme for World Wetlands Day: “Protecting wetlands for our common future”. This theme highlights the importance of collective action to protect these ecosystems, on which the future of humanity depends.According to United Nations data, although they cover only 6% of the earth's surface, wetlands are home to 40% of all plant and animal species. And, worldwide, more than 1 billion people (one eighth of the Earth's population) live in rural and urban areas that depend on these ecosystems for their livelihoods. However, with a 35% global loss in the last 50 years (since 1970), wetlands are the most threatened ecosystem, disappearing three times faster than forests.In Latin America, the Andean wetlands of the Gran Atacama region - located in the border area of Argentina, Bolivia and Chile - are home to unique species of flora and fauna, especially adapted to extreme climatic conditions, as well as microorganisms that absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Its high capacity to purify and store water guarantees the supply of the resource for communities and species, also generating conditions for adaptation to the climate crisis.However, due to the presence of large quantities of lithium in these wetlands - the three countries concentrate more than 53% of the resources (potentially exploitable material) of the mineral - there is great pressure on them: corporate and state actors have developed a growing and massive mining industry to meet the demand for lithium in the global north, oriented to the manufacture of electric vehicles and energy storage from renewable sources, among other purposes.On the other hand, national and provincial governments see the industry as an opportunity to attract investment and strengthen their economies, for which they relax or poorly implement regulations that require an adequate analysis of the environmental and social impacts of projects. Likewise, there are no processes of consultation and free, prior and informed consent with the indigenous communities living in the territories. Nor are the rights of access to information, citizen participation, access to justice in environmental matters, or a safe environment for environmental defenders guaranteed.One of the main impacts of this type of mining (lithium extraction) is on water, a central element of Andean wetlands. Lithium is extracted from the water beneath the salt flats, a process that requires both saltwater and freshwater. Andean wetlands exist in regions where survival depends on the scarce water that defines them. The expansion of extractivism in the Gran Atacama regionArgentinaAccording to official data, the country has a portfolio of more than 50 lithium projects in different stages of progress, mainly located in the provinces of Salta, Catamarca and Jujuy. Three of them are in production and export stage (a fourth project started production in July 2024), four are under construction and more than 40 are at different stages of progress (prospecting/exploration/feasibility), mostly in advanced exploration phase. In Salta and Jujuy operate large companies such as Pan American Energy, Pluspetrol and Tecpetrol, historically linked to the oil and gas industry, which are now expanding their presence in renewable energy sectors, with a marked interest in lithium extraction.However, through an amparo action filed against the authorities and government of the province of Jujuy, it has come to light that there are more than 40 mining projects in the Salinas Grandes Basin and Guayatayoc Lagoon alone, an endorheic basin where more than thirty native communities belonging to the Kolla and Atacama peoples/nations live. To date, their progress and whether there are other projects is unknown because access to public environmental information is restricted and is not provided in a complete and timely manner, in breach of national regulations and international standards. In the Salar del Hombre Muerto, Catamarca, is the oldest lithium mining enclave in the country. The salt flat has been exploited since 1996 by the company Livent (now Arcadium Lithium), causing the total and irreversible drying up of the vega of the Trapiche River. In March 2024, the Supreme Court of Catamarca ordered a halt to mining activity in this salar until a cumulative environmental impact assessment is conducted. BoliviaIn the Salar de Uyuni, the largest in the world, resources of 23 million tons of lithium have been identified. And there are 26 other salt flats that, by regulation, are reserved for the exploitation of the mineral; exploration activities are being carried out in six of them. In Bolivia, lithium is state-owned. The country has a state-owned exploitation plant that began operating in 2024 at 20% of its capacity. In 2012 and 2018, two public consultations were held for state-owned plants, but these excluded indigenous and native communities with titled collective lands. Some communities have informally denounced a significant depletion of springs and water wells. The degradation of the Salar de Chalviri and the overexploitation of lithium and boron in the Salar de Capina have also been denounced.Since 2023, agreements have been signed and exploration and camp installation activities have begun with one Russian and two Chinese companies. These agreements have resulted in two contracts, signed at the end of 2024 and pending approval by the Legislative Assembly, with the Russian company Uranium One Group for a plant in the Salar de Uyuni and with the Chinese consortium CBC Hong Kong (CATL-BRUMP-CMOC companies) for two other plants in the same salar. Also at the end of last year, a second international call was launched for the exploitation of four other salt flats (Empexa, Capina, Cañapa and Chiguana), which has resulted in the signing of agreements with the companies EAU Lithium Pty Ltd (Australia), Tecpetrol S.A. (Argentina) and Geolith Actaris (France). These agreements, contracts and processes have been developed without prior consultation processes and with a lack of transparency. ChileThe Salar de Atacama basin is home to more than 90% of Chile's lithium reserves and was one of the first to be exploited by the mining industry. Currently, there are four major mining operations in the Salar Atacama, located in the Antofagasta Region: lithium extraction by Sociedad Química y Minera de Chile (SQM) and Albemaerle, under contracts with the Corporación de Fomento de la Producción (CORFO), which involves the extraction of more than 2,000 liters of water per second; and the parallel extraction of copper by Minera Escondida and Minera Zaldívar, which extract more than 1,400 liters of fresh water per second, aggravating the already critical water crisis in the area. The Atacameño Community of Peine, who live in the salar basin, has taken legal action denouncing the overexploitation of their aquifers, while in Calama, citizen movements are demanding water governance in the face of uncontrolled extraction by mining companies. In 2015, a government-appointed committee recognized that brine extraction has adverse effects on the ecosystem, but instead of regulating its use, it confirmed the government's long-standing policy of regulating lithium production.In Chile, the government has exclusive property rights over lithium under Decree Law 2886 (1979). This means that state institutions, particularly CORFO, set the conditions under which private companies operate in the salars. In 1979, following U.S. directives, the Chilean government - the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet - declared lithium a “strategic mineral” and took measures to safeguard long-term reserves by limiting production through quotas accredited by the Chilean Nuclear Energy Commission.The National Lithium Strategy, launched in 2023, seeks to expand state exploitation, including new projects in the Maricunga and Pedernales salt flats. Chile concentrates 36% of global lithium production and, with at least 31 new green hydrogen projects in the pipeline, pressure on water resources will increase exponentially. It is known that, since 2013, on SQM's property, 32.4% of the carob trees (Prosopis chilenis) have dried up due to lack of water. The carob tree is a native tree, resistant to drought and with very deep roots that allow it to survive in this environment.  Press contacts Víctor Quintanilla, Interamerican Association for Environmental Defense (AIDA), [email protected], +52 5570522107Rocío Wischñevsky, Fundación Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (FARN), Argentina, [email protected], +54 1159518538Verónica Gostissa, Asamblea Pucará (Argentina), [email protected], +54 93834771717Juan Donoso, Formando Rutas (Chile), [email protected], +4915780743628 

The ABCs of transition minerals and their role in energy production

By Mayela Sánchez, David Cañas and Javier Oviedo* There is no doubt that we need to move away from fossil fuels to address the climate crisis. But what does it mean to switch to other energy sources?To make a battery or a solar panel, raw materials from nature are also used.Some of these raw materials are minerals which, due to their characteristics and in the context of the energy transition, have been descriptively named transition minerals.What are these minerals, where are they found, and how are they used?Below we answer the most important questions about these mineral resources, because it is crucial to know which natural resources will supply the new energy sources, and to ensure that their extraction respects human rights and planetary limits, so that the energy transition is just. What are transition minerals and why are they called that?They are a group of minerals with a high capacity to store and conduct energy. Because of these properties, they are used in the development of renewable energy technologies, such as solar panels, batteries for electric mobility, or wind turbines.They are so called because they are considered essential for the technological development of renewable energy sources, such as those mentioned above. And in the context of the energy transition, energy sources that use these minerals are the most sought-after to replace fossil energy sources.Transition minerals are also often referred to as "critical" minerals because they are considered strategic to the energy transition. The term "critical" refers to elements that are vital to the economy and national security, but whose supply chain is vulnerable to disruption. This means that transition minerals may be strategic minerals, but not critical in terms of security and the economy.However, given the urgency of climate action, some states and international organizations have classified transition minerals as "critical" minerals in order to promote and facilitate access to these raw materials. What are the most important transition minerals?The most important transition minerals are cobalt, copper, graphite, lithium, nickel and rare earth.But there are at least 19 minerals used in various renewable energy technologies: bauxite, cadmium, cobalt, copper, chromium, tin, gallium, germanium, graphite, indium, lithium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silicon, tellurium, titanium, zinc, and the "rare" earth. What are "rare" earth elements and why are they so called?The "rare" earth elements are the 16 chemical elements of the lanthanoid or lanthanide group, plus Ithrium (Y), whose chemical behavior is virtually the same as that of the lanthanoids.They are Scandium, Ithrium, Lanthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium, Neodymium, Samarium, Europium, Gadolinium, Terbium, Dysprosium, Holmium, Erbium, Tullium, Iterbium and Lutetium.They are so called because when they were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries, they were less well known than other elements considered similar, such as calcium. But the name is now outdated.Nor does the term "rare" refer to their abundance, because although they are not usually concentrated in deposits that can be exploited (so their mines are few), even the less abundant elements in this group are much more common than gold. What are transition minerals used for? What technologies are based on transition minerals?The uses of transition minerals in the technological development of renewable energy sources are diverse:Solar technologies: bauxite, cadmium, tin, germanium, gallium, indium, selenium, silicon, tellurium, zinc.Electrical installations: copper.Wind energy: bauxite, copper, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, rare earths, zinc.Energy storage: bauxite, cobalt, copper, graphite, lithium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, rare earths, titanium.Batteries: cobalt, graphite, lithium, manganese, nickel, rare earths. In addition, they are used in a variety of modern technologies, for example in the manufacture of displays, cell phones, computer hard drives and LED lights, among others. Where are transition minerals found?The geography of transition minerals is broad, ranging from China to Canada, from the United States to Australia. But their extraction has been concentrated in countries of the global south.Several Latin American countries are among the top producers of various transition minerals. These materials are found in complex areas rich in biological and cultural diversity, such as the Amazon and the Andean wetlands.Argentina: lithiumBrazil: aluminum, bauxite, lithium, manganese, rare earths, titaniumBolivia: lithiumChile: copper, lithium, molybdenumColombia: nickelMexico: copper, tin, molybdenum, zincPeru: tin, molybdenum, zinc How do transition minerals support the energy transition and decarbonization?Transition minerals are seen as indispensable links in the energy transition to decarbonization, i.e. the shift away from fossil energy sources.But the global interest in these materials also raises questions about the benefits and challenges of mining transition minerals.The issue has become so relevant that last September, the United Nations Panel on Critical Minerals for Energy Transition issued a set of recommendations and principles to ensure equitable, fair and sustainable management of these minerals.In addition, as a result of the intensification and expansion of their extraction in countries of the region, the issue was brought before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights for the first time on November 15.In a public hearing, representatives of communities and organizations from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Colombia, as well as regional organizations, presented information and testimonies on the environmental and social impacts of transition mineral mining.Given the current energy transition process, it is necessary to know where the resources that will enable the technologies to achieve this transition will come from.The extraction and use of transition minerals must avoid imposing disproportionate environmental and social costs on local communities and ecosystems. *Mayela Sánchez is a digital community specialist at AIDA; David Cañas and Javier Oviedo are scientific advisors.Sources consulted:-Olivera, B., Tornel, C., Azamar, A., Minerales críticos para la transición energética. Conflictos y alternativas hacia una transformación socioecológica, Heinrich Böll Foundation Mexico City/Engenera/UAM-Unidad Xochimilco.-Science History Institute Museum & Library, “History and Future of Rare Earth Elements”.-FIMA NGO, Narratives on the extraction of critical minerals for the energy transition: Critiques from environmental and territorial justice.-Haxel, Hedrick & Orris, “Rare Earth-Elements. Critical Resources for High Technology,” 2005.-USGS 2014, “The Rare-Earth elements. Vital to modern technology and lifestyle”, 2014.-Final Report for the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) Thematic Hearing: Minerals for Energy Transition and its Impact on Human Rights in the Americas, 2024. 

Whales and salmon farming: how does the industry impact our gentle marine giants?

Chile is by nature a country of marine mammals. Of the 94 species of cetaceans existing in the world, 43 have their habitat in the country's waters. And just over a quarter of them are found in Patagonia. But Chile is also a country of salmon, occupying the second place in the world production, surpassed only by Norway. The overlap of the salmon industry with the habitat of these emblematic marine mammals represents a significant threat to cetaceans in Chile about which not enough is known.The recent deaths of three whales in protected areas of Chile's southern seas force us to ask ourselves why they are dying and how they are affected by the growing industry with which they share their habitat.Civil society is responding. In early November 2024, Greenpeace - together with the Kawésqar community Grupos Familiares Nómadas del Mar and with the support of AIDA - filed two criminal complaints against those responsible for the deaths of humpback whales in protected areas.These lawsuits, which have already been declared admissible, represent an unprecedented milestone in the country's criminal history, as they are the first take advantage of the amendaments made to the Penal Code by Law 21,595 on Economic and Environmental Crimes to the Penal Code to file a lawsuit for possible violations committed inside protected areas.In this context, AIDA, together with Greenpeace and the NGO FIMA - historical allies in the resistance to the expansion of salmon farming in the waters of Chilean Patagonia - commissioned a scientific report entitle “Cetaceans and Salmon Farming: Challenges for the Protection of Marine Biodiversity in Chilean Patagonia.”The report is currently available in Spanish, which lays out the available information on the impacts of salmon farming on the whales and dolphins of Chilean Patagonia. The results are alarming: serious risks have been identified, in addition to a lack of data that makes it difficult to understand the magnitude and consequences of the threats.One of the most evident impacts is the incidental capture of small and large cetaceans in farming centers. There are documented cases of entanglement and deaths, although the lack of official records makes it difficult to measure the severity of the problem.Another significant threat is the Intense maritime traffic in Patagonia, largely related to the salmon industry. Although there is no official data in Chile, there is evidence of deaths and serious injuries due to collisions between boats and whales. In addition, underwater noise from boat engines affects the health and well-being of the whales and dolphins, which depend on sound for communication and orientation.In addition to these, there are other problems of the industry, whose effects on whales and dolphins have not been adequately studied, but which we should consider while the studies are being conducted. One of these is the escape of salmonids, which compete with native species for food resources and may carry diseases that could affect smaller cetaceans in particular by reducing the availability of prey that serve as food.Microplastic pollution, 40 percent of which comes from salmon farming centers, is another under-researched environmental concern in terms of its impact on cetaceans. And the excessive use of antibiotics in Chilean salmon farming, one of the highest rates in the world, could be having negative indirect effects on the ecosystems that support these marine mammals.Finally, one of the most significant environmental impacts of the salmon farming in Chilean Patagonia is the generation of hypoxia and anoxia due to the excess of organic matter in the farming centers, coming from salmon feces and uneaten food that falls to the seabed. The decomposition of this matter consumes the oxygen in the water, creating zones in the sea where life becomes difficult or impossible.We hope that this report will fill the information gap that has become uncomfortable and even untenable in light of recent whale deaths.With this evidence, even in a scenario of limited knowledge, we will be able to encourage a governmental response towards the rapid implementation of effective protection measures for whales and dolphins in Chilean waters.Chile is a country of cetaceans, and as their guardians, we must ensure that our waters are a safe space for their development and well-being. Read and download the report (in Spanish)  

Juan Francisco Zapata Hassi

Camila Alejandra Inostroza Jara

Cristina Lux

Diego Lillo Goffreri

Claudia Arancibia

Claudia Marín