By Mayela Sánchez, David Cañas and Javier Oviedo*

There is no doubt that we need to move away from fossil fuels to address the climate crisis. But what does it mean to switch to other energy sources?

To make a battery or a solar panel, raw materials from nature are also used.

Some of these raw materials are minerals which, due to their characteristics and in the context of the energy transition, have been descriptively named transition minerals.

What are these minerals, where are they found, and how are they used?

Below we answer the most important questions about these mineral resources, because it is crucial to know which natural resources will supply the new energy sources, and to ensure that their extraction respects human rights and planetary limits, so that the energy transition is just.

What are transition minerals and why are they called that?

They are a group of minerals with a high capacity to store and conduct energy. Because of these properties, they are used in the development of renewable energy technologies, such as solar panels, batteries for electric mobility, or wind turbines.

They are so called because they are considered essential for the technological development of renewable energy sources, such as those mentioned above. And in the context of the energy transition, energy sources that use these minerals are the most sought-after to replace fossil energy sources.

Transition minerals are also often referred to as "critical" minerals because they are considered strategic to the energy transition. The term "critical" refers to elements that are vital to the economy and national security, but whose supply chain is vulnerable to disruption. This means that transition minerals may be strategic minerals, but not critical in terms of security and the economy.

However, given the urgency of climate action, some states and international organizations have classified transition minerals as "critical" minerals in order to promote and facilitate access to these raw materials.

What are the most important transition minerals?

The most important transition minerals are cobalt, copper, graphite, lithium, nickel and rare earth.

But there are at least 19 minerals used in various renewable energy technologies: bauxite, cadmium, cobalt, copper, chromium, tin, gallium, germanium, graphite, indium, lithium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silicon, tellurium, titanium, zinc, and the "rare" earth.

What are "rare" earth elements and why are they so called?

The "rare" earth elements are the 16 chemical elements of the lanthanoid or lanthanide group, plus Ithrium (Y), whose chemical behavior is virtually the same as that of the lanthanoids.

They are Scandium, Ithrium, Lanthanum, Cerium, Praseodymium, Neodymium, Samarium, Europium, Gadolinium, Terbium, Dysprosium, Holmium, Erbium, Tullium, Iterbium and Lutetium.

They are so called because when they were discovered in the 18th and 19th centuries, they were less well known than other elements considered similar, such as calcium. But the name is now outdated.

Nor does the term "rare" refer to their abundance, because although they are not usually concentrated in deposits that can be exploited (so their mines are few), even the less abundant elements in this group are much more common than gold.

What are transition minerals used for? What technologies are based on transition minerals?

The uses of transition minerals in the technological development of renewable energy sources are diverse:

• Solar technologies: bauxite, cadmium, tin, germanium, gallium, indium, selenium, silicon, tellurium, zinc.
• Electrical installations: copper.
• Wind energy: bauxite, copper, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, rare earths, zinc.
• Energy storage: bauxite, cobalt, copper, graphite, lithium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, rare earths, titanium.
• Batteries: cobalt, graphite, lithium, manganese, nickel, rare earths.
   

In addition, they are used in a variety of modern technologies, for example in the manufacture of displays, cell phones, computer hard drives and LED lights, among others.

Where are transition minerals found?

The geography of transition minerals is broad, ranging from China to Canada, from the United States to Australia. But their extraction has been concentrated in countries of the global south.

Several Latin American countries are among the top producers of various transition minerals. These materials are found in complex areas rich in biological and cultural diversity, such as the Amazon and the Andean wetlands.

• Argentina: lithium
• Brazil: aluminum, bauxite, lithium, manganese, rare earths, titanium
• Bolivia: lithium
• Chile: copper, lithium, molybdenum
• Colombia: nickel
• Mexico: copper, tin, molybdenum, zinc
• Peru: tin, molybdenum, zinc
   

How do transition minerals support the energy transition and decarbonization?

Transition minerals are seen as indispensable links in the energy transition to decarbonization, i.e. the shift away from fossil energy sources.

But the global interest in these materials also raises questions about the benefits and challenges of mining transition minerals.

The issue has become so relevant that last September, the United Nations Panel on Critical Minerals for Energy Transition issued a set of recommendations and principles to ensure equitable, fair and sustainable management of these minerals.

In addition, as a result of the intensification and expansion of their extraction in countries of the region, the issue was brought before the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights for the first time on November 15.

In a public hearing, representatives of communities and organizations from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Colombia, as well as regional organizations, presented information and testimonies on the environmental and social impacts of transition mineral mining.

Given the current energy transition process, it is necessary to know where the resources that will enable the technologies to achieve this transition will come from.

The extraction and use of transition minerals must avoid imposing disproportionate environmental and social costs on local communities and ecosystems.

*Mayela Sánchez is a digital community specialist at AIDA; David Cañas and Javier Oviedo are scientific advisors.

Sources consulted:

-Olivera, B., Tornel, C., Azamar, A., Minerales críticos para la transición energética. Conflictos y alternativas hacia una transformación socioecológica, Heinrich Böll Foundation Mexico City/Engenera/UAM-Unidad Xochimilco.

-Science History Institute Museum & Library, “History and Future of Rare Earth Elements”.

-FIMA NGO, Narratives on the extraction of critical minerals for the energy transition: Critiques from environmental and territorial justice.

-Haxel, Hedrick & Orris, “Rare Earth-Elements. Critical Resources for High Technology,” 2005.

-USGS 2014, “The Rare-Earth elements. Vital to modern technology and lifestyle”, 2014.

-Final Report for the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) Thematic Hearing: Minerals for Energy Transition and its Impact on Human Rights in the Americas, 2024.